Spreading Positivity

[plsdonteatme]

21


lmao my nigga

[YEET]

Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form.[1] Some cheeses have molds on the rind or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature.

Hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (including the animal's diet), whether they have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and aging. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents. The yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as black pepper, garlic, chives or cranberries.

For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice. Most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available; most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, but others have been extracted from various species of the Cynara thistle family. Cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs.

Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compact and has a longer shelf life than milk, although how long a cheese will keep depends on the type of cheese; labels on packets of cheese often claim that a cheese should be consumed within three to five days of opening. Generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goat's milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, allows selling when markets are favorable.

There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts[who?] say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a porous plastic on the inside, and the outside has a layer of wax. This specific combination of plastic on the inside and wax on the outside protects the cheese by allowing condensation on the cheese to be wicked away while preventing moisture from within the cheese escaping.[2]

A specialist seller of cheese is sometimes known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, much like becoming an expert in wine or cuisine. The cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory: selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening.[3]

[plsdonteatme]

(01-29-2017, 11:48 PM)YEET Wrote: Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, or sheep. During production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form.[1] Some cheeses have molds on the rind or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature.

Hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk (including the animal's diet), whether they have been pasteurized, the butterfat content, the bacteria and mold, the processing, and aging. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents. The yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as black pepper, garlic, chives or cranberries.

For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice. Most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available; most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, but others have been extracted from various species of the Cynara thistle family. Cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs.

Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compact and has a longer shelf life than milk, although how long a cheese will keep depends on the type of cheese; labels on packets of cheese often claim that a cheese should be consumed within three to five days of opening. Generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goat's milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, allows selling when markets are favorable.

There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts[who?] say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a porous plastic on the inside, and the outside has a layer of wax. This specific combination of plastic on the inside and wax on the outside protects the cheese by allowing condensation on the cheese to be wicked away while preventing moisture from within the cheese escaping.[2]

A specialist seller of cheese is sometimes known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, much like becoming an expert in wine or cuisine. The cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory: selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening.[3]

reported u rgsbhhb of trash

[Apix]

Spread positivity like you spread butter on bwead.

[Faded]

here's how i spread positivity

(iz all a joke, k?)

You swine. You vulgar little maggot. You worthless bag of filth. As we
say in Texas, you couldn't pour water out of a boot with instructions
printed on the heel. You are a canker, an open wound. I would rather
kiss a lawyer than be seen with you. You took your last vacation in
the Islets of Langerhans.

You're a putrescent mass, a walking vomit. You are a spineless little
worm deserving nothing but the profoundest contempt. You are a jerk, a
cad, and a weasel. I take that back; you are a festering pustule on a
weasel's rump. Your life is a monument to stupidity. You are a stench,
a revulsion, a big suck on a sour lemon.

I will never get over the embarrassment of belonging to the same
species as you. You are a monster, an ogre, a malformity. I barf at
the very thought of you. You have all the appeal of a paper cut.
Lepers avoid you. You are vile, worthless, less than nothing. You are
a weed, a fungus, the dregs of this earth. You are a technicolor yawn.
And did I mention that you smell?

You are a squeaking rat, a mistake of nature and a heavy-metal bagpipe
player. You were not born. You were hatched into an unwilling world
that rejects the likes of you. You didn't crawl out of a normal egg,
either, but rather a mutant maggot egg rejected by an evil scientist
as being below his low standards. Your alleged parents abandoned you
at birth and then died of shame in recognition of what they had done
to an unsuspecting world. They were a bit late.

Try to edit your responses of unnecessary material before attempting
to impress us with your insight. The evidence that you are a
nincompoop will still be available to readers, but they will be able
to access it ever so much more rapidly. If cluelessness were crude
oil, your scalp would be crawling with caribou.

You are a thick-headed trog. I have seen skeet with more sense than
you have. You are a few bricks short of a full load, a few cards short
of a full deck, a few bytes short of a full core dump, and a few
chromosomes short of a full human. Worse than that, you top-post. God
created houseflies, cockroaches, maggots, mosquitos, fleas, ticks,
slugs, leeches, and intestinal parasites, then he lowered his
standards and made you. I take it back; God didn't make you. You are
Satan's spawn. You are Evil beyond comprehension, half-living in the
slough of despair. You are the entropy which will claim us all. You
are a green-nostriled, crossed eyed, hairy-livered inbred
trout-defiler. You make Ebola look good.

You are weary, stale, flat and unprofitable. You are grimy, squalid,
nasty and profane. You are foul and disgusting. You're a fool, an
ignoramus. Monkeys look down on you. Even sheep won't have sex with
you. You are unreservedly pathetic, starved for attention, and lost in
a land that reality forgot. You are not ANSI compliant and your markup
doesn't validate. You have a couple of address lines shorted together.
You should be promoted to Engineering Manager.

Do you really expect your delusional and incoherent ramblings to be
read? Everyone plonked you long ago. Do you fantasize that your
tantrums and conniption fits could possibly be worth the $0.000000001
worth of electricity used to send them? Your life is one big
W.O.M.B.A.T. and your future doesn't look promising either. We need to
trace your bloodline and terminate all siblings and cousins in order
to cleanse humanity of your polluted genes. The good news is that no
normal human would ever mate with you, so we won't have to go into the
sewers in search of your git.

You are a waste of flesh. You have no rhythm. You are ridiculous and
obnoxious. You are the moral equivalent of a leech. You are a living
emptiness, a meaningless void. You are sour and senile. You are a
loathsome disease, a drooling inbred cross-eyed toesucker. You make
Quakers shout and strike Pentecostals silent. You have a version 1.0
mind in a version 6.12 world. Your mother had to tie a pork chop
around your neck just to get your dog to play with you. You think
that HTTP://WWW.GUYMACON.COM/FUN/INSULT/INDEX.HTM is the name of a
rock band. You believe that P.D.Q. Bach is the greatest composer who
ever lived. You prefer L. Ron Hubbard to Larry Niven and Jerry
Pournelle. Hee-Haw is too deep for you. You would watch test patterns
all day if the other inmates would let you.

On a good day you're a half-wit. You remind me of drool. You are
deficient in all that lends character. You have the personality of
wallpaper. You are dank and filthy. You are asinine and benighted.
Spammers look down on you. Phone sex operators hang up on you.
Telemarketers refuse to be seen in public with you. You are the source
of all unpleasantness. You spread misery and sorrow wherever you go.
May you choke on your own foolish opinions. You are a Pusillanimous
galactophage and you wear your sister's training bra. Don't bother
opening the door when you leave - you should be able to slime your
way out underneath. I hope that when you get home your mother runs
out from under the porch and bites you.

You smarmy lagerlout git. You bloody woofter sod. Bugger off, pillock.
You grotty wanking oik artless base-court apple-john. You clouted
boggish foot-licking half-twit. You dankish clack-dish plonker. You
gormless crook-pated tosser. You bloody churlish boil-brained clotpole
ponce. You craven dewberry pisshead cockup pratting naff. You cockered
bum-bailey poofter. You gob-kissing gleeking flap-mouthed coxcomb. You
dread-bolted fobbing beef-witted clapper-clawed flirt-gill. May your
spouse be blessed with many bastards.

You are so clueless that if you dressed in a clue skin, doused yourself
in clue musk, and did the clue dance in the middle of a field of horny
clues at the height of clue mating season, you still would not have a
clue. If you were a movie you would be a double feature;
_Battlefield_Earth_ and _Moron_Movies_II_. You would be out of focus.

You are a fiend and a sniveling coward, and you have bad breath. You
are the unholy spawn of a bandy-legged hobo and a syphilitic camel.
You wear strangely mismatched clothing with oddly placed stains. You
are degenerate, noxious and depraved. I feel debased just knowing that
you exist. I despise everything about you, and I wish you would go
away. You are jetsam who dreams of becoming flotsam. You won't make
it. I beg for sweet death to come and remove me from a world which
became unbearable when you crawled out of a harpy's lair.

It is hard to believe how incredibly stupid you are. Stupid as a stone
that the other stones make fun of. So stupid that you have traveled
far beyond stupid as we know it and into a new dimension of stupid.
Meta-stupid. Stupid cubed. Trans-stupid stupid. Stupid collapsed to
a singularity where even the stupons have collapsed into stuponium.
Stupid so dense that no intelligence can escape. Singularity stupid.
Blazing hot summer day on Mercury stupid. You emit more stupid in one
minute than our entire galaxy emits in a year. Quasar stupid. It cannot
be possible that anything in our universe can really be this stupid.
This is a primordial fragment from the original big stupid bang. A pure
extract of stupid with absolute stupid purity. Stupid beyond the laws
of nature. I must apologize. I can't go on. This is my epiphany of
stupid. After this experience, you may not hear from me for a while.
I don't think that I can summon the strength left to mock your moronic
opinions and malformed comments about boring trivia or your other
drivel. Duh.

The only thing worse than your logic is your manners. I have snipped
away most of your of what you wrote, because, well ... it didn't
really say anything. Your attempt at constructing a creative flame was
pitiful. I mean, really, stringing together a bunch of insults among a
load of babbling was hardly effective... Maybe later in life, after
you have learned to read, write, spell, and count, you will have more
success. True, these are rudimentary skills that many of us "normal"
people take for granted that everyone has an easy time of mastering.
But we sometimes forget that there are "challenged" persons in this
world who find these things to be difficult. If I had known that this
was true in your case then I would have never have exposed myself to
what you wrote. It just wouldn't have been "right." Sort of like
parking in a handicap space. I wish you the best of luck in the
emotional, and social struggles that seem to be placing such a
demand on you.

P.S.: You are hypocritical, greedy, violent, malevolent, vengeful,
cowardly, deadly, mendacious, meretricious, loathsome, despicable,
belligerent, opportunistic, barratrous, contemptible, criminal,
fascistic, bigoted, racist, sexist, avaricious, tasteless, idiotic,
brain-damaged, imbecilic, insane, arrogant, deceitful, demented, lame,
self-righteous, byzantine, conspiratorial, fraudulent,
libelous, bilious, splenetic, spastic, ignorant, clueless, EDLINoid,
illegitimate, harmful, destructive, dumb, evasive, double-talking,
devious, revisionist, narrow, manipulative, paternalistic,
fundamentalist, dogmatic, idolatrous, unethical, cultic, diseased,
suppressive, controlling, restrictive, malignant, deceptive, dim,
crazy, weird, dyspeptic, stifling, uncaring, plantigrade, grim,
unsympathetic, jargon-spouting, censorious, secretive, aggressive,
mind-numbing, arassive, poisonous, flagrant, self-destructive,
abusive, socially-retarded, puerile, and Generally Not Good.

[Robin]

WHAT THE HELL IS THIS!?!?!?!?

[Squirrel]

(01-30-2017, 02:58 AM)Faded Wrote: here's how i spread positivity

(iz all a joke, k?)

You swine. You vulgar little maggot.

~snipped other pages, lol~

And then your sig says you're the guy living in my basement?

~grin~

Well, if the owners cemented up the door at the top of the stairs that goes to the main floor, I think I can see why! ~tease!~

The good news??

By the lengths of that, it looks like you graduated highschool just fine, and gave just as many scars as you received!

[CantREKTMe]

(01-30-2017, 05:29 AM)Robin Wrote: WHAT THE HELL IS THIS!?!?!?!?

[Supergirl]

(01-30-2017, 09:00 AM)CantREKTMe Wrote:

(01-30-2017, 05:29 AM)Robin Wrote: WHAT THE HELL IS THIS!?!?!?!?

It is only @plsdonteatme's 10 minutes per week, which he have every week 
So, nothing special 

[CantREKTMe]

(01-30-2017, 10:19 AM)Supergirl Wrote:

(01-30-2017, 09:00 AM)CantREKTMe Wrote:

(01-30-2017, 05:29 AM)Robin Wrote: WHAT THE HELL IS THIS!?!?!?!?

It is only @plsdonteatme's 10 minutes per week, which he have every week 
So, nothing special 

?

[Voakie]

Germany
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Germany (disambiguation) and Deutschland (disambiguation).
"Federal Republic of Germany" redirects here. For 1949–1990, see West Germany.
Coordinates: 51°N 9°E

Federal Republic of Germany
Bundesrepublik Deutschland[a]
Flag of Germany
Coat of arms of Germany
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit"
"Unity and Justice and Freedom" (de facto)
Anthem: Deutschlandlied
(English: "Song of Germany")
(third verse only)[b]
MENU0:00
Location of Germany (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green) – [Legend]
Location of Germany (dark green)
– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (green) – [Legend]
Capital
and largest city Berlin[a]
52°31′N 13°23′E
Official languages German[1][c]
Ethnic groups (2012[2])
80.0% Germans
11.6% other Europeans
3.7% Turks
1.7% Asians
0.7% Africans
0.5% Americans
1.8% Others/unspecified
Religion
33.5% Not religious
29.5% Roman Catholicism
27.9% Evangelical Church
5% Islam
3.3% Other Christians
0.8% Other Religions[3]
Demonym German
Government Federal parliamentary republic
• President
Joachim Gauck
• Chancellor
Angela Merkel
• President of the Bundestag
Norbert Lammert
• President of the Bundesrat
Malu Dreyer
• President of the Federal Constitutional Court
Andreas Voßkuhle
Legislature
• Upper house
Bundesrat
• Lower house
Bundestag
Formation
• Holy Roman Empire
2 February 962
• German Confederation
8 June 1815
• German Empire
18 January 1871
• Weimar Republic
11 August 1919
• Federal Republic
23 May 1949
• EEC Foundation[d]
1 January 1958
• Reunification
3 October 1990
Area
• Total
357,168 km2 (137,903 sq mi) (63rd)
Population
• 2015 estimate
82,175,700[4] (16th)
• Density
227/km2 (587.9/sq mi) (58th)
GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate
• Total
$3.842 trillion[5] (5th)
• Per capita
$47,033[5] (20th)
GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate
• Total
$3.371 trillion[5] (4th)
• Per capita
$41,267[5] (20th)
Gini (2014) Negative increase 30.7[6]
medium
HDI (2014) Increase 0.916[7]
very high · 6th
Currency Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the right
Calling code 49
ISO 3166 code DE
Internet TLD .de and .eu
^ Berlin is the sole constitutional capital and de jure seat of government, but the former provisional capital of the Federal Republic of Germany, Bonn, has the special title of "federal city" (Bundesstadt) and is the primary seat of six ministries; all government ministries have offices in both cities.
Germany (Listeni/ˈdʒɜːrməni/; German: Deutschland, pronounced [ˈdɔʏtʃlant]), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, About this sound listen (help·info)),[e][8] is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres (137,847 sq mi), and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular immigration destination in the world.[9][10] Germany's capital and largest metropolis is Berlin. Other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart and Düsseldorf.

Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity. A region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire.[11] During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation.

In 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic. The establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and a genocide. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded: the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. In 1990, the country was reunified.[12]

In the 21st century, Germany is a great power and has the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the fifth-largest by PPP. As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a developed country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled and productive society. It upholds a social security and universal health care system, environmental protection and a tuition-free university education.[13]

Germany was a founding member of the European Union in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world. Known for its rich cultural history, Germany has been continuously the home of influential artists, philosophers, musicians, sportspeople, entrepreneurs, scientists, engineers, and inventors.

Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire
2.2 East Francia and Holy Roman Empire
2.3 German Confederation and Empire
2.4 Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
2.5 East and West Germany
2.6 Reunified Germany and EU
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Biodiversity
3.3 Urbanisation
4 Politics
4.1 Law
4.2 Constituent states
4.3 Foreign relations
4.4 Military
5 Economy
5.1 Companies
5.2 Transport
5.3 Energy and infrastructure
5.4 Science and technology
5.5 Tourism
6 Demographics
6.1 Immigrant population
6.2 Religion
6.3 Languages
6.4 Education
6.5 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Music
7.2 Art
7.3 Architecture
7.4 Literature and philosophy
7.5 Media
7.6 Cinema
7.7 Cuisine
7.8 Sports
7.9 Fashion and design
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Etymology
Further information: Names of Germany
The English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine.[14] The German term Deutschland, originally diutisciu land ("the German lands") is derived from deutsch (cf. dutch), descended from Old High German diutisc "popular" (i.e. belonging to the diot or diota "people"), originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz "popular" (see also the Latinised form Theodiscus), derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- "people", from which the word "Teutons" also originates.[15]

History
Main article: History of Germany

The Nebra sky disk, c. 1600 BC
The discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago.[16] The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a coal mine in Schöningen where three 380,000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed.[17] The Neander Valley was the location where the first ever non-modern human fossil was discovered; the new species of human was called the Neanderthal. The Neanderthal 1 fossils are known to be 40,000 years old. Evidence of modern humans, similarly dated, has been found in caves in the Swabian Jura near Ulm. The finds include 42,000-year-old bird bone and mammoth ivory flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found,[18] the 40,000-year-old Ice Age Lion Man which is the oldest uncontested figurative art ever discovered,[19] and the 35,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels which is the oldest uncontested human figurative art ever discovered.[20] The Nebra sky disk is a bronze artefact created during the European Bronze Age attributed to a site near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt. It is part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.[21]

Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire
Main articles: Germania, Migration Period, and Frankish Realm

Migrations in Europe (100–500 AD)
The Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south, east and west from the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Central and Eastern Europe.[22] Under Augustus, Rome began to invade Germania (an area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains). In 9 AD, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius. By 100 AD, when Tacitus wrote Germania, Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany; Austria, Baden Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hessen and the western Rhineland, however, were Roman provinces.[23]

In the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged: Alemanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisii, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands.[24] After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved further south-west. Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and displaced or absorbed smaller Germanic tribes. Large areas known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia, Neustria, and Aquitaine were conquered by the Franks who established the Frankish Kingdom, and pushed further east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria. Areas of what is today the eastern part of Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes of Sorbs, Veleti and the Obotritic confederation.[23]

East Francia and Holy Roman Empire
Main articles: East Francia and Holy Roman Empire
In 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor and founded the Carolingian Empire, which was later divided in 843 among his heirs.[25] Following the break up of the Frankish Realm, for 900 years, the history of Germany was intertwined with the history of the Holy Roman Empire,[26] which subsequently emerged from the eastern portion of Charlemagne's original empire. The territory initially known as East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe River in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps.[25]

The Ottonian rulers (919–1024) consolidated several major duchies and the German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. In 996 Gregory V became the first German Pope, appointed by his cousin Otto III, whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy.[27]


Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the Protestant Reformation.
In the 12th century, under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs; they encouraged German settlement in these areas, called the eastern settlement movement (Ostsiedlung). Members of the Hanseatic League, which included mostly north German cities and towns, prospered in the expansion of trade.[28] In the south, the Greater Ravensburg Trade Corporation (Große Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft) served a similar function. The edict of the Golden Bull issued in 1356 by Emperor Charles IV provided the basic constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics.[29]

Population declined in the first half of the 14th century, starting with the Great Famine in 1315, followed by the Black Death of 1348–50.[30] Despite the decline, however, German artists, engineers, and scientists developed a wide array of techniques similar to those used by the Italian artists and designers of the time who flourished in such merchant city-states as Venice, Florence and Genoa. Artistic and cultural centres throughout the German states produced such artists as the Augsburg painters Hans Holbein and his son, and Albrecht Dürer. Johannes Gutenberg introduced moveable-type printing to Europe, a development that laid the basis for the spread of learning to the masses.[31]


The Holy Roman Empire in 1648, after the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War
In 1517, the Wittenberg monk Martin Luther publicised The Ninety-Five Theses, challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating the Protestant Reformation. In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg established Lutheranism as an acceptable alternative to Catholicism, but also decreed that the faith of the prince was to be the faith of his subjects, a principle called Cuius regio, eius religio. The agreement at Augsburg failed to address other religious creed: for example, the Reformed faith was still considered a heresy and the principle did not address the possible conversion of an ecclesiastic ruler, such as happened in Electorate of Cologne in 1583. From the Cologne War until the end of the Thirty Years' Wars (1618–1648), religious conflict devastated German lands.[32] The latter reduced the overall population of the German states by about 30 per cent, and in some places, up to 80 per cent.[33] The Peace of Westphalia ended religious warfare among the German states.[32] German rulers were able to choose either Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism or the Reformed faith as their official religion after 1648.[34]

In the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1,800 territories.[35] The elaborate legal system initiated by a series of Imperial Reforms (approximately 1450–1555) created the Imperial Estates and provided for considerable local autonomy among ecclesiastical, secular, and hereditary states, reflected in Imperial Diet. The House of Habsburg held the imperial crown from 1438 until the death of Charles VI in 1740. Having no male heirs, he had convinced the Electors to retain Habsburg hegemony in the office of the emperor by agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction. This was finally settled through the War of Austrian Succession; in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Maria Theresa's husband became Holy Roman Emperor, and she ruled the Empire as Empress Consort. From 1740, the dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated the German history.

In 1772, then again in 1793 and 1795, the two dominant German states of Prussia and Austria, along with the Russian Empire, agreed to the Partitions of Poland; dividing among themselves the lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. As a result of the partitions, millions of Polish speaking inhabitants fell under the rule of the two German monarchies. However, the annexed territories though incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia and the Habsburg Realm, were not legally considered as a part of the Holy Roman Empire.[36][37]

During the period of the French Revolutionary Wars, along with the arrival of the Napoleonic era and the subsequent final meeting of the Imperial Diet, most of the secular Free Imperial Cities were annexed by dynastic territories; the ecclesiastical territories were secularised and annexed. In 1806 the Imperium was dissolved; German states, particularly the Rhineland states, fell under the influence of France. Until 1815, France, Russia, Prussia and the Habsburgs competed for hegemony in the German states during the Napoleonic Wars.[38]

German Confederation and Empire
Main articles: German Confederation, German Empire, and German Colonial Empire
Following the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna (convened in 1814) founded the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. The appointment of the Emperor of Austria as the permanent president of the Confederation reflected the Congress's failure to accept Prussia's influence among the German states, and acerbated the long-standing competition between the Hohenzollern and Habsburg interests. Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity in the German states.[39] National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among many, especially young, Germans. The Hambach Festival in May 1832 was a main event in support of German unity, freedom and democracy. In the light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the movement.[40]


Foundation of the German Empire in Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is at the centre in a white uniform.
King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Minister President of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck successfully concluded war on Denmark in 1864, which promoted German over Danish interests in the Jutland peninsula. The subsequent (and decisive) Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) which excluded Austria from the federation's affairs. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the founding of the German Empire in 1871 at Versailles, uniting all scattered parts of Germany except Austria. Prussia was the dominant constituent state of the new empire; the Hohenzollern King of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor, and Berlin became its capital.[40]


The German Empire (1871–1918), with the Kingdom of Prussia in blue
In the Gründerzeit period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as Chancellor of Germany under Emperor William I secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under Wilhelm II, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course, leading to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had previously been involved were not renewed. This resulted in creation of a dual alliance with the multinational realm of Austria-Hungary, promoting at least benevolent neutrality if not outright military support. Subsequently, the Triple Alliance of 1882 included Italy, completing a Central European geographic alliance that illustrated German, Austrian and Italian fears of incursions against them by France and/or Russia. Similarly, Britain, France and Russia also concluded alliances that would protect them against Habsburg interference with Russian interests in the Balkans or German interference against France.[41]

At the Berlin Conference in 1884, Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togoland, and Kamerun.[42] Later, Germany further expanded its colonial empire to include German New Guinea, German Micronesia and German Samoa in the Pacific, and Kiautschou Bay in China. In what became known as the "First Genocide of the Twentieth-Century", between 1904 and 1907, the German colonial government in South-West Africa (present-day Namibia) ordered the annihilation of the local Herero and Namaqua peoples, as a punitive measure for an uprising against German colonial rule. In total, around 100,000 people—80% of the Herero and 50% of the Namaqua—perished form imprisonment in concentration camps, where the majority died of disease, abuse, and exhaustion, or from dehydration and starvation in the countryside after being deprived of food and water.[43][44]

The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for the Austrian Empire to attack Serbia and trigger World War I. After four years of warfare, in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed,[45] a general armistice ended the fighting on 11 November, and German troops returned home. In the German Revolution (November 1918), Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated their positions and responsibilities. Germany's new political leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. In this treaty, Germany, as part of the Central Powers, accepted defeat by the Allies in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time. Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating and unjust and it was later seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler.[46][47][48] After the defeat in the First World War, Germany lost around thirteen per cent of its European territory (areas predominantly inhabited by ethnic Polish, French and Danish populations, which were lost following the Greater Poland Uprising, the return of Alsace-Lorraine and the Schleswig plebiscites), and all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the South Sea.[49]

Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
Main articles: Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany

Philipp Scheidemann proclaims the German Republic from the Reichstag balcony, on 9 November 1918.
Germany was declared a republic at the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918. On 11 August 1919 President Friedrich Ebert signed the democratic Weimar Constitution.[50] In the subsequent struggle for power, the radical-left Communists seized power in Bavaria, but conservative elements in other parts of Germany attempted to overthrow the Republic in the Kapp Putsch. It was supported by parts of the Reichswehr (military) and other conservative, nationalistic and monarchist factions. After a tumultuous period of bloody street fighting in the major industrial centres, the occupation of the Ruhr by Belgian and French troops and the rise of inflation culminating in the hyperinflation of 1922–23, a debt restructuring plan and the creation of a new currency in 1924 ushered in the Golden Twenties, an era of increasing artistic innovation and liberal cultural life. Underneath it all, though, lay a current of animosity and frustration over the Treaty of Versailles, widely perceived as a stab in the back, which provided the basis of much of the anti-Semitism rife in the next two decades.[51] The economic situation remained volatile. Historians describe the period between 1924 and 1929 as one of "partial stabilisation."[52] The worldwide Great Depression hit Germany in 1929. After the federal election of 1930, Chancellor Heinrich Brüning's government was enabled by President Paul von Hindenburg to act without parliamentary approval. Brüning's government pursued a policy of fiscal austerity and deflation which caused high unemployment of nearly 30% by 1932.[53]

The Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler won the special federal election of 1932. After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany in 1933.[54] After the Reichstag fire, a decree abrogated basic civil rights and within weeks the first Nazi concentration camp at Dachau opened.[55][56] The Enabling Act of 1933 gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power; subsequently, his government established a centralised totalitarian state, withdrew from the League of Nations following a national referendum, and began military rearmament.[57]


Adolf Hitler, leader of Nazi Germany (1933–1945)
Using deficit spending, a government-sponsored programme for economic renewal focused on public works projects. In public work projects of 1934, 1.7 million Germans immediately were put to work, which gave them an income and social benefits.[58] The most famous of the projects was the high speed roadway, the Reichsautobahn, known as the German autobahns.[59] Other capital construction projects included hydroelectric facilities such as the Rur Dam, water supplies such as Zillierbach Dam, and transportation hubs such as Zwickau Hauptbahnhof.[60] Over the next five years, unemployment plummeted and average wages both per hour and per week rose.[61]

In 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities. Germany also reacquired control of the Saar in 1935,[62] annexed Austria in 1938, and despite the Munich Agreement, occupied Czechoslovakia in early 1939.

In August 1939, Hitler's government negotiated and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Following the agreement, on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II.[63][64] In response to Hitler's actions, Britain and France declared war on Germany.[65] In the spring of 1940, Germany conquered Denmark and Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France forcing the French government to sign an armistice after German troops occupied most of the country. The British repelled German air attacks in the Battle of Britain in the same year. In 1941, German troops invaded Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union. By 1942, Germany and other Axis powers controlled most of continental Europe and North Africa, but following the Soviet Union's victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, the allies' reconquest of North Africa and invasion of Italy in 1943, German forces suffered repeated military defeats.[63] In June 1944, the Western allies landed in France and the Soviets pushed into Eastern Europe. By late 1944, the Western allies had entered Germany despite one final German counter offensive in the Ardennes Forest. Following Hitler's suicide during the Battle of Berlin, German armed forces surrendered on 8 May 1945, ending World War II in Europe.[66]

In what later became known as The Holocaust, the German government persecuted minorities and used a network of concentration and death camps across Europe to conduct a genocide of what they considered to be inferior races. In total, over 10 million civilians were systematically murdered, including 6 million Jews, between 220,000 and 1,500,000 Romani, 275,000 persons with disabilities, thousands of Jehovah's Witnesses, thousands of homosexuals, and hundreds of thousands of members of the political and religious opposition from Germany and occupied countries (Nacht und Nebel).[67] Nazi policies in the German occupied countries resulted in the deaths of 2.7 million Poles,[68] 1.3 million Ukrainians,[69] and an estimated 2.8 million Soviet war prisoners.[69][70] German military war casualties were estimated at between 3.2 million and 5.3 million soldiers,[71] and up to 2 million German civilians.[72] German territorial losses resulted in the expulsion of circa 12 million of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe. Germany ceded roughly one-quarter of its pre-war territory.[12] Strategic bombing and land warfare destroyed many cities and cultural heritage sites. After World War II, former members of the Nazi regime were tried for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials.[70][73]

East and West Germany
Main article: History of Germany (1945–90)

Occupation zones in Germany, 1947. Territories east of the Oder-Neisse line under Polish and Soviet de facto annexation, and the French controlled Saar Protectorate marked in light tan.
After Germany surrendered, the Allies partitioned Berlin and Germany's remaining territory into four military occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik). They were informally known as "West Germany" and "East Germany". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was an artificial and temporary status quo.[74]

West Germany was established as a federal parliamentary republic with a "social market economy". Starting in 1948 West Germany became a major recipient of reconstruction aid under the Marshall Plan and used this to rebuild its industry.[75] Konrad Adenauer was elected the first Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) of Germany in 1949 and remained in office until 1963. Under his and Ludwig Erhard's leadership, the country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s, that became known as an "economic miracle" (Wirtschaftswunder).[76] West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957.


The Berlin Wall during its fall in 1989, with the Brandenburg Gate in the background.
East Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members (Politbüro) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany, supported by the Stasi, an immense secret service controlling many aspects of the society.[77] A Soviet-style command economy was set up and the GDR later became a Comecon state.[78] While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity.[79] The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War.[40] It was the site of Ronald Reagan's "Mr. Gorbachov, Tear down this wall!" speech of 12 June 1987, which echoed John F. Kennedy's famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech of 26 June 1963. The fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, German Reunification and Die Wende.[80]

Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik. In summer 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. The East German authorities eased the border restrictions, allowing East German citizens to travel to the West; originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process. This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR.[40]

Reunified Germany and EU
Main articles: German reunification and History of Germany since 1990

German unity was established on 3 October 1990.[81] Since 1999, the Reichstag building in Berlin has been the meeting place of the Bundestag, the German parliament.
The united Germany is considered to be the enlarged continuation of the Federal Republic of Germany and not a successor state. As such, it retained all of West Germany's memberships in international organisations.[82] Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act, adopted in 1994, Berlin once again became the capital of the reunified Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries.[83] The relocation of the government was completed in 1999.[84] Following the 1998 elections, SPD politician Gerhard Schröder became the first Chancellor of a red–green coalition with the Alliance '90/The Greens party.

The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy is a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion.[85]


Germany became a co-founder of the European Union (1993), introduced the Euro currency (2002), and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007 (pictured).
Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union. Together with its European partners Germany signed the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, established the Eurozone in 1999, and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.[86] Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban.[87] These deployments were controversial since Germany was bound by domestic law only to deploy troops for defence roles.[88]

In the 2005 elections, Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany as the leader of a grand coalition.[40] In 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn.[89]

In 2009, a liberal-conservative coalition under Merkel assumed leadership of the country. In 2013, a grand coalition was established in a Third Merkel cabinet. Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration, the energy transition (Energiewende) for a sustainable energy supply, the "Debt Brake" for balanced budgets, measures to increase the fertility rate significantly (pronatalism), and high-tech strategies for the future transition of the German economy, summarised as Industry 4.0.[90]

Germany was affected by the European migrant crisis in 2015 as it became the final destination of choice for most migrants entering the EU. The country took in over a million refugees and developed a quota system which redistributed migrants around its federal states based on their tax income and existing population density.[91]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Germany

Topographic map
Germany is in Western and Central Europe, with Denmark bordering to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria to the southeast, Switzerland to the south-southwest, France, Luxembourg and Belgium lie to the west, and the Netherlands to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 47° and 55° N and longitudes 5° and 16° E. Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and, at the north-northeast, by the Baltic Sea. With Switzerland and Austria, Germany also shares a border on the fresh-water Lake Constance, the third largest lake in Central Europe.[92] German territory covers 357,021 km2 (137,847 sq mi), consisting of 349,223 km2 (134,836 sq mi) of land and 7,798 km2 (3,011 sq mi) of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world.[93]

Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2,962 metres or 9,718 feet) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the northeast. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: Wilstermarsch at 3.54 metres or 11.6 feet below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Germany's alpine glaciers are experiencing deglaciation. Significant natural resources include iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land and water.[93]

Climate
Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate dominated by humid westerly winds. The country is situated in between the oceanic Western European and the continental Eastern European climate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the northwest and the north the climate is oceanic. Germany gets an average of 789 mm (31 in) of precipitation per year; there is no consistent dry season. Winters are cool and summers tend to be warm: temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F).[94]

The east has a more continental climate: winters can be very cold and summers very warm, and longer dry periods can occur. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental. In addition to the maritime and continental climates that predominate over most of the country, the Alpine regions in the extreme south and, to a lesser degree, some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate, with lower temperatures and more precipitation.[94]





Rhine valley in summer at Lorelei, Usedom coastal area in autumn, Lüneburg Heath landscape in spring, Zugspitze summit in winter
Biodiversity
The territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European-Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast-Atlantic shelf marine.[95] As of 2008 the majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (34%) or forest and woodland (30.1%); only 13.4% of the area consists of permanent pastures, 11.8% is covered by settlements and streets.[96]


The golden eagle is a protected raptor
Plants and animals include those generally common to Central Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one-third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include roe deer, wild boar, mouflon (a subspecies of wild sheep), fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of the Eurasian beaver.[97] The blue cornflower was once a German national symbol.[98]

The 16 national parks in Germany include the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Harz National Park, the Hainich National Park, the Black Forest National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park, the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park. In addition, there are 15 Biosphere Reserves, as well as 98 nature parks. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any country.[99] The Berlin Zoo, opened in 1844, is the oldest zoo in Germany, and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.[100]

Urbanisation
See also: List of cities and towns in Germany and List of cities in Germany by population
Germany has a number of large cities. There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions in Germany. 34 cities have been identified as regiopolis. The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (11.7 million in 2008), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia), Cologne, Bonn, Dortmund, Essen, Duisburg, and Bochum.[101]

v t e
Largest cities or towns in Germany
Statistical offices in Germany 31 December 2015
Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop.
Berlin
Berlin
Hamburg
Hamburg 1 Berlin Berlin 3,710,156 11 Bremen Bremen (state) 557,464 Munich
Munich
Cologne
Cologne
2 Hamburg Hamburg 1,787,408 12 Dresden Saxony 543,825
3 Munich Bavaria 1,450,381 13 Hannover Lower Saxony 532,163
4 Cologne North Rhine-Westphalia 1,060,582 14 Nuremberg Bavaria 509,975
5 Frankfurt Hesse 732,688 15 Duisburg North Rhine-Westphalia 491,231
6 Stuttgart Baden-Württemberg 623,738 16 Bochum North Rhine-Westphalia 364,742
7 Düsseldorf North Rhine-Westphalia 612,178 17 Wuppertal North Rhine-Westphalia 350,046
8 Dortmund North Rhine-Westphalia 586,181 18 Bielefeld North Rhine-Westphalia 333,090
9 Essen North Rhine-Westphalia 582,624 19 Bonn North Rhine-Westphalia 318,809
10 Leipzig Saxony 560,472 20 Münster North Rhine-Westphalia 310,039
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Germany, Taxation in Germany, and Federal budget of Germany
Woche der Umwelt 2012 (7344500700).jpg Angela Merkel (August 2012) cropped.jpg
Joachim Gauck
President since 2012 Angela Merkel
Chancellor since 2005
Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity.[102]

The president, Joachim Gauck (18 March 2012–present), is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag.[40]


The political system of Germany
The chancellor, Angela Merkel (22 November 2005–present), is the head of government and exercises executive power, similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, by proportional representation (mixed-member).[93] The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets.[40]

Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany. So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (in parliament from 1949 to 2013) and the Alliance '90/The Greens (in parliament since 1983) have also played important roles.[103]

The debt-to-GDP ratio of Germany had its peak in 2010 when it stood at 80.3% and decreased since then.[104] According to Eurostat, the government gross debt of Germany amounts to €2,152.0 billion or 71.9% of its GDP in 2015.[105] The federal government achieved a budget surplus of €12.1 billion ($13.1 billion) in 2015.[106] Germany's credit rating by credit rating agencies Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings stands at the highest possible rating AAA with a stable outlook in 2016.[107]

Law
Main articles: Law of Germany, Judiciary of Germany, and Law enforcement in Germany

Judges of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) in Karlsruhe in 1989
Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review.[40][108] Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes, is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court.

Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public.[109] Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (Schöffen) sit side by side with professional judges.[110][111] Many of the fundamental matters of administrative law remain in the jurisdiction of the states.

Germany has a low murder rate with 0.9 murders per 100,000 in 2014.[112]

Constituent states
Main article: States of Germany
Germany comprises sixteen federal states which are collectively referred to as Bundesländer.[113] Each state has its own state constitution[114] and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. Because of differences in size and population the subdivisions of these states vary, especially as between city states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories (Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). As of 2013 Germany is divided into 402 districts (Kreise) at a municipal level; these consist of 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts.[115]

Coat of arms of Lower Saxony.svg Lower Saxony Bremen Wappen.svg Bremen Coat of arms of Hamburg.svg Hamburg Coat of arms of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (great).svg Mecklenburg-
Vorpommern Wappen Sachsen-Anhalt.svg Saxony-
Anhalt Coat of arms of Saxony.svg Saxony Brandenburg Wappen.svg Brandenburg Insigne Berolini.svg Berlin Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg Thuringia Coat of arms of Hesse.svg Hesse Coat of arms of North Rhine-Westfalia.svg North Rhine-
Westphalia Coat of arms of Rhineland-Palatinate.svg Rhineland-Palatinate Arms of the Free State of Bavaria.svg Bavaria Coat of arms of Baden-Württemberg (lesser).svg Baden-
Württemberg Wappen des Saarlands.svg Saarland DEU Schleswig-Holstein COA.svg Schleswig-Holstein
State Capital Area (km2) Population [116] Nominal GDP billions EUR in 2015[117] Nominal GDP per capita EUR in 2015[117] Nominal GDP per capita USD in 2015[118]
Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,752 10,569,100 461 42,800 47,500
Bavaria Munich 70,549 12,519,600 550 43,100 47,900
Berlin Berlin 892 3,375,200 125 35,700 39,700
Brandenburg Potsdam 29,477 2,449,500 66 26,500 29,500
Bremen Bremen 404 654,800 32 47,600 52,900
Hamburg Hamburg 755 1,734,300 110 61,800 68,800
Hesse Wiesbaden 21,115 6,016,500 264 43,100 47,900
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Schwerin 23,174 1,600,300 40 25,000 27,700
Lower Saxony Hanover 47,618 7,779,000 259 32,900 36,600
North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,043 17,554,300 646 36,500 40,500
Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,847 3,990,300 132 32,800 36,400
Saarland Saarbrücken 2,569 994,300 35 35,400 39,300
Saxony Dresden 18,416 4,050,200 113 27,800 30,900
Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,445 2,259,400 57 25,200 27,800
Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,763 2,806,500 86 31,200 34,700
Thuringia Erfurt 16,172 2,170,500 57 26,400 29,300
Germany Berlin 357,376 82,175,684 3025 37,100 41,200
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Germany

Germany hosted the G8 summit in Heiligendamm, 6–8 June 2007
Germany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad[119] and maintains relations with more than 190 countries.[120] As of 2011, Germany is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 20%)[121] and the third largest contributor to the UN (providing 8%).[122] Germany is a member of NATO, the OECD, the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF. It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighbouring countries since 1990. Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus.[123][124]

The development policy of Germany is an independent area of foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[125] It was the world's third biggest aid donor in 2009 after the United States and France.[126][127]

In 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since 1945.[128] The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.[40] Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.[129]

Military
Main article: Bundeswehr
File:Eurofighter 9803.ogg
The Eurofighter Typhoon is part of the Luftwaffe fleet
Germany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organised into Heer (Army and special forces KSK), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. In absolute terms, German military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world.[130] In 2015, military spending was at €32.9 billion, about 1.2% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%.[131]

As of December 2015 the Bundeswehr employed roughly 178,000 service members, including 9,500 volunteers.[132] Reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad.[133] Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction.[134] About 19,000 female soldiers are on active duty. According to SIPRI, Germany was the fourth largest exporter of major arms in the world in 2014.[135]


A German Navy Brandenburg class frigate
In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. In state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr.[136]

The role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only. But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994 the term "defence" has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world. As of January 2015, the German military has about 2,370 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 850 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, 670 German soldiers in Kosovo, and 120 troops with UNIFIL in Lebanon.[137]

Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, and conscripts served six-month tours of duty; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (civilian service), or a six-year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross. In 2011 conscription was officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.[138][139]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Germany

Germany maintains a large automotive industry, and is the world's third largest exporter of goods.[140]
Germany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption,[141] and a high level of innovation.[142] It is the world's third largest exporter of goods,[140] and has the largest national economy in Europe which is also the world's fourth largest by nominal GDP[143] and the fifth one by PPP.[144]

The service sector contributes approximately 71% of the total GDP (including information technology), industry 28%, and agriculture 1%.[93] The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 4.7% in January 2015, which is the lowest rate of all 28 EU member states.[145] With 7.1% Germany also has the lowest youth unemployment rate of all EU member states.[145] According to the OECD Germany has one of the highest labour productivity levels in the world.[146]


Frankfurt is a leading business centre in Europe and seat of the ECB.
Germany is part of the European single market which represents more than 508 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Germany introduced the common European currency, the Euro in 2002.[147][148] It is a member of the Eurozone which represents around 338 million citizens. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt, the financial centre of continental Europe.

Being home to the modern car, the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world,[149] and is the fourth largest by production.[150] The top 10 exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.[151]

Companies
Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2014, the Fortune Global 500, 28 are headquartered in Germany. 30 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index. Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, SAP, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, Deutsche Bahn, Deutsche Bank and Bosch.[152]

Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the Mittelstand model. Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions.[153] Berlin developed a thriving, cosmopolitan hub for startup companies and became a leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.[154]

The list includes the largest German companies by revenue in 2014:[155]


Germany is part of a monetary union, the eurozone (dark blue), and of the EU single market.
Rank Name Headquarters Revenue
(bil. €) Profit
(bil. €) Employees
(World)
1. Volkswagen Wolfsburg 269 15 593,000
2. Daimler Stuttgart 172 9 280,000
3. E.ON Essen 151 −4 59,000
4. Allianz Munich 137 8 147,000
5. BMW Munich 107 8 116,000
6. Siemens Berlin, Munich 74 6 360,000
7. BASF Ludwigshafen 99 7 113,000
8. Metro Düsseldorf 59 1 228,000
9. Deutsche Telekom Bonn 83 4 228,000
10. Munich Re Munich 82 4 43,000
Transport
Main articles: Transport in Germany and Rail transport in Germany

The ICE 3 in Cologne railway station
With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub for the continent.[156] Like its neighbours in Western Europe, Germany's road network is among the densest in the world.[157] The motorway (Autobahn) network ranks as the third-largest worldwide in length and is known for its lack of a general speed limit.[158]

Germany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 km/h (190 mph).[159] The German railways are subsidised by the government, receiving €17.0 billion in 2014.[160]

The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, both hubs of Lufthansa, while Air Berlin has hubs at Berlin Tegel and Düsseldorf. Other major airports include Berlin Schönefeld, Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn and Leipzig/Halle.[161] The Port of Hamburg is one of the top twenty largest container ports in the world.[162]

Energy and infrastructure
Main articles: Energy in Germany, Telecommunications in Germany, and Water supply and sanitation in Germany
In 2008, Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy,[163] and 60% of its primary energy was imported.[164] In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%).[165] The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021.[166] It also enforces energy conservation, green technologies, emission reduction activities,[167] and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40% renewable sources by 2020. Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, water management, and the renewable energy commercialisation.[168] The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world—at around 65%.[169] Nevertheless, the country's total greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU in 2010.[170] The German energy transition (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.[171]

Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Germany

Albert Einstein, physicist. The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 107 German laureates.
Germany is a global leader in science and technology as it achievements in the fields of science and technology have been significant. Research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy.[172] The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 106 German laureates.[173] It produces the second highest number of graduates in science and engineering (31%) after South Korea.[174] In the beginning of the 20th century, German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation, especially in the sciences (physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine).[175][176]

Notable German physicists before the 20th century include Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Albert Einstein introduced the relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with Max Planck, he was instrumental in the introduction of quantum mechanics, in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions.[177] Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.[178] Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission, while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology. Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass, Hermann Weyl and Felix Klein.


European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, including Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer.[179] Such German inventors, engineers and industrialists as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin,[180] Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology. German institutions like the German Aerospace Center (DLR) are the largest contributor to ESA. Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket at Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.[181]

Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society. The Wendelstein 7-X in Greifswald hosts a facility in the research of fusion power for instance.[182] The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world.[183]

Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Germany

The Berchtesgaden alpine region. Bavaria is the overall most visited German state, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern by domestic tourists.
Germany is the seventh most visited country in the world,[184] with a total of 407 million overnights during 2012.[185] This number includes 68.83 million nights by foreign visitors. In 2012, over 30.4 million international tourists arrived in Germany. Berlin has become the third most visited city destination in Europe.[186] Additionally, more than 30% of Germans spend their holiday in their own country, with the biggest share going to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over EUR43.2 billion to German GDP. Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry contributes 4.5% of German GDP and supports 2 million jobs (4.8% of total employment).[187]

Germany is well known for its diverse tourist routes, such as the Romantic Road, the Wine Route, the Castle Road, and the Avenue Road. The German Timber-Frame Road (Deutsche Fachwerkstraße) connects towns with examples of these structures.[188][189] There are 41 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Germany,[190] including the old town cores of Regensburg, Bamberg, Lübeck, Quedlinburg, Weimar, Stralsund and Wismar. Germany's most-visited landmarks include e.g. Neuschwanstein Castle, Cologne Cathedral, Berlin Bundestag, Hofbräuhaus Munich, Heidelberg Castle, Dresden Zwinger, Fernsehturm Berlin and Aachen Cathedral. The Europa-Park near Freiburg is Europe's second most popular theme park resort.[191]

[Supergirl]

(01-30-2017, 11:52 AM)Voakie Wrote: Germany
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the country. For other uses, see Germany (disambiguation) and Deutschland (disambiguation).
"Federal Republic of Germany" redirects here. For 1949–1990, see West Germany.
Coordinates: 51°N 9°E

Federal Republic of Germany
Bundesrepublik Deutschland[a]
Flag of Germany
Coat of arms of Germany
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit"
"Unity and Justice and Freedom" (de facto)
Anthem: Deutschlandlied
(English: "Song of Germany")
(third verse only)[b]
MENU0:00
Location of  Germany  (dark green)– in Europe  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  –  [Legend]
Location of  Germany  (dark green)
– in Europe  (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union  (green)  –  [Legend]
Capital
and largest city Berlin[a]
52°31′N 13°23′E
Official languages German[1][c]
Ethnic groups (2012[2])
80.0% Germans
11.6% other Europeans
3.7% Turks
1.7% Asians
0.7% Africans
0.5% Americans
1.8% Others/unspecified
Religion
33.5% Not religious
29.5% Roman Catholicism
27.9% Evangelical Church
5% Islam
3.3% Other Christians
0.8% Other Religions[3]
Demonym German
Government Federal parliamentary republic
• President
Joachim Gauck
• Chancellor
Angela Merkel
• President of the Bundestag
Norbert Lammert
• President of the Bundesrat
Malu Dreyer
• President of the Federal Constitutional Court
Andreas Voßkuhle
Legislature
• Upper house
Bundesrat
• Lower house
Bundestag
Formation
• Holy Roman Empire
2 February 962
• German Confederation
8 June 1815
• German Empire
18 January 1871
• Weimar Republic
11 August 1919
• Federal Republic
23 May 1949
• EEC Foundation[d]
1 January 1958
• Reunification
3 October 1990
Area
• Total
357,168 km2 (137,903 sq mi) (63rd)
Population
• 2015 estimate
82,175,700[4] (16th)
• Density
227/km2 (587.9/sq mi) (58th)
GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate
• Total
$3.842 trillion[5] (5th)
• Per capita
$47,033[5] (20th)
GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate
• Total
$3.371 trillion[5] (4th)
• Per capita
$41,267[5] (20th)
Gini (2014) Negative increase 30.7[6]
medium
HDI (2014) Increase 0.916[7]
very high · 6th
Currency Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the right
Calling code 49
ISO 3166 code DE
Internet TLD .de and .eu
^ Berlin is the sole constitutional capital and de jure seat of government, but the former provisional capital of the Federal Republic of Germany, Bonn, has the special title of "federal city" (Bundesstadt) and is the primary seat of six ministries; all government ministries have offices in both cities.
Germany (Listeni/ˈdʒɜːrməni/; German: Deutschland, pronounced [ˈdɔʏtʃlant]), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, About this sound listen (help·info)),[e][8] is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres (137,847 sq mi), and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular immigration destination in the world.[9][10] Germany's capital and largest metropolis is Berlin. Other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart and Düsseldorf.

Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity. A region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire.[11] During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation.

In 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic. The establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and a genocide. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded: the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. In 1990, the country was reunified.[12]

In the 21st century, Germany is a great power and has the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the fifth-largest by PPP. As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a developed country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled and productive society. It upholds a social security and universal health care system, environmental protection and a tuition-free university education.[13]

Germany was a founding member of the European Union in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world. Known for its rich cultural history, Germany has been continuously the home of influential artists, philosophers, musicians, sportspeople, entrepreneurs, scientists, engineers, and inventors.

Contents  [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire
2.2 East Francia and Holy Roman Empire
2.3 German Confederation and Empire
2.4 Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
2.5 East and West Germany
2.6 Reunified Germany and EU
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Biodiversity
3.3 Urbanisation
4 Politics
4.1 Law
4.2 Constituent states
4.3 Foreign relations
4.4 Military
5 Economy
5.1 Companies
5.2 Transport
5.3 Energy and infrastructure
5.4 Science and technology
5.5 Tourism
6 Demographics
6.1 Immigrant population
6.2 Religion
6.3 Languages
6.4 Education
6.5 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Music
7.2 Art
7.3 Architecture
7.4 Literature and philosophy
7.5 Media
7.6 Cinema
7.7 Cuisine
7.8 Sports
7.9 Fashion and design
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Etymology
Further information: Names of Germany
The English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine.[14] The German term Deutschland, originally diutisciu land ("the German lands") is derived from deutsch (cf. dutch), descended from Old High German diutisc "popular" (i.e. belonging to the diot or diota "people"), originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz "popular" (see also the Latinised form Theodiscus), derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- "people", from which the word "Teutons" also originates.[15]

History
Main article: History of Germany

The Nebra sky disk, c. 1600 BC
The discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago.[16] The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a coal mine in Schöningen where three 380,000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed.[17] The Neander Valley was the location where the first ever non-modern human fossil was discovered; the new species of human was called the Neanderthal. The Neanderthal 1 fossils are known to be 40,000 years old. Evidence of modern humans, similarly dated, has been found in caves in the Swabian Jura near Ulm. The finds include 42,000-year-old bird bone and mammoth ivory flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found,[18] the 40,000-year-old Ice Age Lion Man which is the oldest uncontested figurative art ever discovered,[19] and the 35,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels which is the oldest uncontested human figurative art ever discovered.[20] The Nebra sky disk is a bronze artefact created during the European Bronze Age attributed to a site near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt. It is part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.[21]

Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire
Main articles: Germania, Migration Period, and Frankish Realm

Migrations in Europe (100–500 AD)
The Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south, east and west from the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Central and Eastern Europe.[22] Under Augustus, Rome began to invade Germania (an area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains). In 9 AD, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius. By 100 AD, when Tacitus wrote Germania, Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany; Austria, Baden Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hessen and the western Rhineland, however, were Roman provinces.[23]

In the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged: Alemanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisii, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands.[24] After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved further south-west. Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and displaced or absorbed smaller Germanic tribes. Large areas known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia, Neustria, and Aquitaine were conquered by the Franks who established the Frankish Kingdom, and pushed further east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria. Areas of what is today the eastern part of Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes of Sorbs, Veleti and the Obotritic confederation.[23]

East Francia and Holy Roman Empire
Main articles: East Francia and Holy Roman Empire
In 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor and founded the Carolingian Empire, which was later divided in 843 among his heirs.[25] Following the break up of the Frankish Realm, for 900 years, the history of Germany was intertwined with the history of the Holy Roman Empire,[26] which subsequently emerged from the eastern portion of Charlemagne's original empire. The territory initially known as East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe River in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps.[25]

The Ottonian rulers (919–1024) consolidated several major duchies and the German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. In 996 Gregory V became the first German Pope, appointed by his cousin Otto III, whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy.[27]


Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the Protestant Reformation.
In the 12th century, under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs; they encouraged German settlement in these areas, called the eastern settlement movement (Ostsiedlung). Members of the Hanseatic League, which included mostly north German cities and towns, prospered in the expansion of trade.[28] In the south, the Greater Ravensburg Trade Corporation (Große Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft) served a similar function. The edict of the Golden Bull issued in 1356 by Emperor Charles IV provided the basic constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics.[29]

Population declined in the first half of the 14th century, starting with the Great Famine in 1315, followed by the Black Death of 1348–50.[30] Despite the decline, however, German artists, engineers, and scientists developed a wide array of techniques similar to those used by the Italian artists and designers of the time who flourished in such merchant city-states as Venice, Florence and Genoa. Artistic and cultural centres throughout the German states produced such artists as the Augsburg painters Hans Holbein and his son, and Albrecht Dürer. Johannes Gutenberg introduced moveable-type printing to Europe, a development that laid the basis for the spread of learning to the masses.[31]


The Holy Roman Empire in 1648, after the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War
In 1517, the Wittenberg monk Martin Luther publicised The Ninety-Five Theses, challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating the Protestant Reformation. In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg established Lutheranism as an acceptable alternative to Catholicism, but also decreed that the faith of the prince was to be the faith of his subjects, a principle called Cuius regio, eius religio. The agreement at Augsburg failed to address other religious creed: for example, the Reformed faith was still considered a heresy and the principle did not address the possible conversion of an ecclesiastic ruler, such as happened in Electorate of Cologne in 1583. From the Cologne War until the end of the Thirty Years' Wars (1618–1648), religious conflict devastated German lands.[32] The latter reduced the overall population of the German states by about 30 per cent, and in some places, up to 80 per cent.[33] The Peace of Westphalia ended religious warfare among the German states.[32] German rulers were able to choose either Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism or the Reformed faith as their official religion after 1648.[34]

In the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1,800 territories.[35] The elaborate legal system initiated by a series of Imperial Reforms (approximately 1450–1555) created the Imperial Estates and provided for considerable local autonomy among ecclesiastical, secular, and hereditary states, reflected in Imperial Diet. The House of Habsburg held the imperial crown from 1438 until the death of Charles VI in 1740. Having no male heirs, he had convinced the Electors to retain Habsburg hegemony in the office of the emperor by agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction. This was finally settled through the War of Austrian Succession; in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Maria Theresa's husband became Holy Roman Emperor, and she ruled the Empire as Empress Consort. From 1740, the dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated the German history.

In 1772, then again in 1793 and 1795, the two dominant German states of Prussia and Austria, along with the Russian Empire, agreed to the Partitions of Poland; dividing among themselves the lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. As a result of the partitions, millions of Polish speaking inhabitants fell under the rule of the two German monarchies. However, the annexed territories though incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia and the Habsburg Realm, were not legally considered as a part of the Holy Roman Empire.[36][37]

During the period of the French Revolutionary Wars, along with the arrival of the Napoleonic era and the subsequent final meeting of the Imperial Diet, most of the secular Free Imperial Cities were annexed by dynastic territories; the ecclesiastical territories were secularised and annexed. In 1806 the Imperium was dissolved; German states, particularly the Rhineland states, fell under the influence of France. Until 1815, France, Russia, Prussia and the Habsburgs competed for hegemony in the German states during the Napoleonic Wars.[38]

German Confederation and Empire
Main articles: German Confederation, German Empire, and German Colonial Empire
Following the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna (convened in 1814) founded the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. The appointment of the Emperor of Austria as the permanent president of the Confederation reflected the Congress's failure to accept Prussia's influence among the German states, and acerbated the long-standing competition between the Hohenzollern and Habsburg interests. Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity in the German states.[39] National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among many, especially young, Germans. The Hambach Festival in May 1832 was a main event in support of German unity, freedom and democracy. In the light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the movement.[40]


Foundation of the German Empire in Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is at the centre in a white uniform.
King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Minister President of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck successfully concluded war on Denmark in 1864, which promoted German over Danish interests in the Jutland peninsula. The subsequent (and decisive) Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) which excluded Austria from the federation's affairs. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the founding of the German Empire in 1871 at Versailles, uniting all scattered parts of Germany except Austria. Prussia was the dominant constituent state of the new empire; the Hohenzollern King of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor, and Berlin became its capital.[40]


The German Empire (1871–1918), with the Kingdom of Prussia in blue
In the Gründerzeit period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as Chancellor of Germany under Emperor William I secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under Wilhelm II, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course, leading to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had previously been involved were not renewed. This resulted in creation of a dual alliance with the multinational realm of Austria-Hungary, promoting at least benevolent neutrality if not outright military support. Subsequently, the Triple Alliance of 1882 included Italy, completing a Central European geographic alliance that illustrated German, Austrian and Italian fears of incursions against them by France and/or Russia. Similarly, Britain, France and Russia also concluded alliances that would protect them against Habsburg interference with Russian interests in the Balkans or German interference against France.[41]

At the Berlin Conference in 1884, Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togoland, and Kamerun.[42] Later, Germany further expanded its colonial empire to include German New Guinea, German Micronesia and German Samoa in the Pacific, and Kiautschou Bay in China. In what became known as the "First Genocide of the Twentieth-Century", between 1904 and 1907, the German colonial government in South-West Africa (present-day Namibia) ordered the annihilation of the local Herero and Namaqua peoples, as a punitive measure for an uprising against German colonial rule. In total, around 100,000 people—80% of the Herero and 50% of the Namaqua—perished form imprisonment in concentration camps, where the majority died of disease, abuse, and exhaustion, or from dehydration and starvation in the countryside after being deprived of food and water.[43][44]

The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for the Austrian Empire to attack Serbia and trigger World War I. After four years of warfare, in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed,[45] a general armistice ended the fighting on 11 November, and German troops returned home. In the German Revolution (November 1918), Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated their positions and responsibilities. Germany's new political leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. In this treaty, Germany, as part of the Central Powers, accepted defeat by the Allies in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time. Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating and unjust and it was later seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler.[46][47][48] After the defeat in the First World War, Germany lost around thirteen per cent of its European territory (areas predominantly inhabited by ethnic Polish, French and Danish populations, which were lost following the Greater Poland Uprising, the return of Alsace-Lorraine and the Schleswig plebiscites), and all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the South Sea.[49]

Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
Main articles: Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany

Philipp Scheidemann proclaims the German Republic from the Reichstag balcony, on 9 November 1918.
Germany was declared a republic at the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918. On 11 August 1919 President Friedrich Ebert signed the democratic Weimar Constitution.[50] In the subsequent struggle for power, the radical-left Communists seized power in Bavaria, but conservative elements in other parts of Germany attempted to overthrow the Republic in the Kapp Putsch. It was supported by parts of the Reichswehr (military) and other conservative, nationalistic and monarchist factions. After a tumultuous period of bloody street fighting in the major industrial centres, the occupation of the Ruhr by Belgian and French troops and the rise of inflation culminating in the hyperinflation of 1922–23, a debt restructuring plan and the creation of a new currency in 1924 ushered in the Golden Twenties, an era of increasing artistic innovation and liberal cultural life. Underneath it all, though, lay a current of animosity and frustration over the Treaty of Versailles, widely perceived as a stab in the back, which provided the basis of much of the anti-Semitism rife in the next two decades.[51] The economic situation remained volatile. Historians describe the period between 1924 and 1929 as one of "partial stabilisation."[52] The worldwide Great Depression hit Germany in 1929. After the federal election of 1930, Chancellor Heinrich Brüning's government was enabled by President Paul von Hindenburg to act without parliamentary approval. Brüning's government pursued a policy of fiscal austerity and deflation which caused high unemployment of nearly 30% by 1932.[53]

The Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler won the special federal election of 1932. After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany in 1933.[54] After the Reichstag fire, a decree abrogated basic civil rights and within weeks the first Nazi concentration camp at Dachau opened.[55][56] The Enabling Act of 1933 gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power; subsequently, his government established a centralised totalitarian state, withdrew from the League of Nations following a national referendum, and began military rearmament.[57]


Adolf Hitler, leader of Nazi Germany (1933–1945)
Using deficit spending, a government-sponsored programme for economic renewal focused on public works projects. In public work projects of 1934, 1.7 million Germans immediately were put to work, which gave them an income and social benefits.[58] The most famous of the projects was the high speed roadway, the Reichsautobahn, known as the German autobahns.[59] Other capital construction projects included hydroelectric facilities such as the Rur Dam, water supplies such as Zillierbach Dam, and transportation hubs such as Zwickau Hauptbahnhof.[60] Over the next five years, unemployment plummeted and average wages both per hour and per week rose.[61]

In 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities. Germany also reacquired control of the Saar in 1935,[62] annexed Austria in 1938, and despite the Munich Agreement, occupied Czechoslovakia in early 1939.

In August 1939, Hitler's government negotiated and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Following the agreement, on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II.[63][64] In response to Hitler's actions, Britain and France declared war on Germany.[65] In the spring of 1940, Germany conquered Denmark and Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France forcing the French government to sign an armistice after German troops occupied most of the country. The British repelled German air attacks in the Battle of Britain in the same year. In 1941, German troops invaded Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union. By 1942, Germany and other Axis powers controlled most of continental Europe and North Africa, but following the Soviet Union's victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, the allies' reconquest of North Africa and invasion of Italy in 1943, German forces suffered repeated military defeats.[63] In June 1944, the Western allies landed in France and the Soviets pushed into Eastern Europe. By late 1944, the Western allies had entered Germany despite one final German counter offensive in the Ardennes Forest. Following Hitler's suicide during the Battle of Berlin, German armed forces surrendered on 8 May 1945, ending World War II in Europe.[66]

In what later became known as The Holocaust, the German government persecuted minorities and used a network of concentration and death camps across Europe to conduct a genocide of what they considered to be inferior races. In total, over 10 million civilians were systematically murdered, including 6 million Jews, between 220,000 and 1,500,000 Romani, 275,000 persons with disabilities, thousands of Jehovah's Witnesses, thousands of homosexuals, and hundreds of thousands of members of the political and religious opposition from Germany and occupied countries (Nacht und Nebel).[67] Nazi policies in the German occupied countries resulted in the deaths of 2.7 million Poles,[68] 1.3 million Ukrainians,[69] and an estimated 2.8 million Soviet war prisoners.[69][70] German military war casualties were estimated at between 3.2 million and 5.3 million soldiers,[71] and up to 2 million German civilians.[72] German territorial losses resulted in the expulsion of circa 12 million of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe. Germany ceded roughly one-quarter of its pre-war territory.[12] Strategic bombing and land warfare destroyed many cities and cultural heritage sites. After World War II, former members of the Nazi regime were tried for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials.[70][73]

East and West Germany
Main article: History of Germany (1945–90)

Occupation zones in Germany, 1947. Territories east of the Oder-Neisse line under Polish and Soviet de facto annexation, and the French controlled Saar Protectorate marked in light tan.
After Germany surrendered, the Allies partitioned Berlin and Germany's remaining territory into four military occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik). They were informally known as "West Germany" and "East Germany". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was an artificial and temporary status quo.[74]

West Germany was established as a federal parliamentary republic with a "social market economy". Starting in 1948 West Germany became a major recipient of reconstruction aid under the Marshall Plan and used this to rebuild its industry.[75] Konrad Adenauer was elected the first Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) of Germany in 1949 and remained in office until 1963. Under his and Ludwig Erhard's leadership, the country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s, that became known as an "economic miracle" (Wirtschaftswunder).[76] West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957.


The Berlin Wall during its fall in 1989, with the Brandenburg Gate in the background.
East Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members (Politbüro) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany, supported by the Stasi, an immense secret service controlling many aspects of the society.[77] A Soviet-style command economy was set up and the GDR later became a Comecon state.[78] While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity.[79] The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War.[40] It was the site of Ronald Reagan's "Mr. Gorbachov, Tear down this wall!" speech of 12 June 1987, which echoed John F. Kennedy's famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech of 26 June 1963. The fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, German Reunification and Die Wende.[80]

Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik. In summer 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. The East German authorities eased the border restrictions, allowing East German citizens to travel to the West; originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process. This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR.[40]

Reunified Germany and EU
Main articles: German reunification and History of Germany since 1990

German unity was established on 3 October 1990.[81] Since 1999, the Reichstag building in Berlin has been the meeting place of the Bundestag, the German parliament.
The united Germany is considered to be the enlarged continuation of the Federal Republic of Germany and not a successor state. As such, it retained all of West Germany's memberships in international organisations.[82] Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act, adopted in 1994, Berlin once again became the capital of the reunified Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries.[83] The relocation of the government was completed in 1999.[84] Following the 1998 elections, SPD politician Gerhard Schröder became the first Chancellor of a red–green coalition with the Alliance '90/The Greens party.

The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy is a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion.[85]


Germany became a co-founder of the European Union (1993), introduced the Euro currency (2002), and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007 (pictured).
Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union. Together with its European partners Germany signed the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, established the Eurozone in 1999, and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.[86] Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban.[87] These deployments were controversial since Germany was bound by domestic law only to deploy troops for defence roles.[88]

In the 2005 elections, Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany as the leader of a grand coalition.[40] In 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn.[89]

In 2009, a liberal-conservative coalition under Merkel assumed leadership of the country. In 2013, a grand coalition was established in a Third Merkel cabinet. Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration, the energy transition (Energiewende) for a sustainable energy supply, the "Debt Brake" for balanced budgets, measures to increase the fertility rate significantly (pronatalism), and high-tech strategies for the future transition of the German economy, summarised as Industry 4.0.[90]

Germany was affected by the European migrant crisis in 2015 as it became the final destination of choice for most migrants entering the EU. The country took in over a million refugees and developed a quota system which redistributed migrants around its federal states based on their tax income and existing population density.[91]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Germany

Topographic map
Germany is in Western and Central Europe, with Denmark bordering to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria to the southeast, Switzerland to the south-southwest, France, Luxembourg and Belgium lie to the west, and the Netherlands to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 47° and 55° N and longitudes 5° and 16° E. Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and, at the north-northeast, by the Baltic Sea. With Switzerland and Austria, Germany also shares a border on the fresh-water Lake Constance, the third largest lake in Central Europe.[92] German territory covers 357,021 km2 (137,847 sq mi), consisting of 349,223 km2 (134,836 sq mi) of land and 7,798 km2 (3,011 sq mi) of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world.[93]

Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2,962 metres or 9,718 feet) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the northeast. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: Wilstermarsch at 3.54 metres or 11.6 feet below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Germany's alpine glaciers are experiencing deglaciation. Significant natural resources include iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land and water.[93]

Climate
Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate dominated by humid westerly winds. The country is situated in between the oceanic Western European and the continental Eastern European climate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the northwest and the north the climate is oceanic. Germany gets an average of 789 mm (31 in) of precipitation per year; there is no consistent dry season. Winters are cool and summers tend to be warm: temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F).[94]

The east has a more continental climate: winters can be very cold and summers very warm, and longer dry periods can occur. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental. In addition to the maritime and continental climates that predominate over most of the country, the Alpine regions in the extreme south and, to a lesser degree, some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate, with lower temperatures and more precipitation.[94]





Rhine valley in summer at Lorelei, Usedom coastal area in autumn, Lüneburg Heath landscape in spring, Zugspitze summit in winter
Biodiversity
The territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European-Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast-Atlantic shelf marine.[95] As of 2008 the majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (34%) or forest and woodland (30.1%); only 13.4% of the area consists of permanent pastures, 11.8% is covered by settlements and streets.[96]


The golden eagle is a protected raptor
Plants and animals include those generally common to Central Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one-third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include roe deer, wild boar, mouflon (a subspecies of wild sheep), fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of the Eurasian beaver.[97] The blue cornflower was once a German national symbol.[98]

The 16 national parks in Germany include the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Harz National Park, the Hainich National Park, the Black Forest National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park, the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park. In addition, there are 15 Biosphere Reserves, as well as 98 nature parks. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any country.[99] The Berlin Zoo, opened in 1844, is the oldest zoo in Germany, and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.[100]

Urbanisation
See also: List of cities and towns in Germany and List of cities in Germany by population
Germany has a number of large cities. There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions in Germany. 34 cities have been identified as regiopolis. The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (11.7 million in 2008), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia), Cologne, Bonn, Dortmund, Essen, Duisburg, and Bochum.[101]

 v t e
Largest cities or towns in Germany
Statistical offices in Germany 31 December 2015
Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop.
Berlin
Berlin
Hamburg
Hamburg 1 Berlin Berlin 3,710,156 11 Bremen Bremen (state) 557,464 Munich
Munich
Cologne
Cologne
2 Hamburg Hamburg 1,787,408 12 Dresden Saxony 543,825
3 Munich Bavaria 1,450,381 13 Hannover Lower Saxony 532,163
4 Cologne North Rhine-Westphalia 1,060,582 14 Nuremberg Bavaria 509,975
5 Frankfurt Hesse 732,688 15 Duisburg North Rhine-Westphalia 491,231
6 Stuttgart Baden-Württemberg 623,738 16 Bochum North Rhine-Westphalia 364,742
7 Düsseldorf North Rhine-Westphalia 612,178 17 Wuppertal North Rhine-Westphalia 350,046
8 Dortmund North Rhine-Westphalia 586,181 18 Bielefeld North Rhine-Westphalia 333,090
9 Essen North Rhine-Westphalia 582,624 19 Bonn North Rhine-Westphalia 318,809
10 Leipzig Saxony 560,472 20 Münster North Rhine-Westphalia 310,039
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Germany, Taxation in Germany, and Federal budget of Germany
Woche der Umwelt 2012 (7344500700).jpg Angela Merkel (August 2012) cropped.jpg
Joachim Gauck
President since 2012 Angela Merkel
Chancellor since 2005
Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity.[102]

The president, Joachim Gauck (18 March 2012–present), is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag.[40]


The political system of Germany
The chancellor, Angela Merkel (22 November 2005–present), is the head of government and exercises executive power, similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, by proportional representation (mixed-member).[93] The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets.[40]

Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany. So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (in parliament from 1949 to 2013) and the Alliance '90/The Greens (in parliament since 1983) have also played important roles.[103]

The debt-to-GDP ratio of Germany had its peak in 2010 when it stood at 80.3% and decreased since then.[104] According to Eurostat, the government gross debt of Germany amounts to €2,152.0 billion or 71.9% of its GDP in 2015.[105] The federal government achieved a budget surplus of €12.1 billion ($13.1 billion) in 2015.[106] Germany's credit rating by credit rating agencies Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings stands at the highest possible rating AAA with a stable outlook in 2016.[107]

Law
Main articles: Law of Germany, Judiciary of Germany, and Law enforcement in Germany

Judges of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) in Karlsruhe in 1989
Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review.[40][108] Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes, is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court.

Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public.[109] Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (Schöffen) sit side by side with professional judges.[110][111] Many of the fundamental matters of administrative law remain in the jurisdiction of the states.

Germany has a low murder rate with 0.9 murders per 100,000 in 2014.[112]

Constituent states
Main article: States of Germany
Germany comprises sixteen federal states which are collectively referred to as Bundesländer.[113] Each state has its own state constitution[114] and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. Because of differences in size and population the subdivisions of these states vary, especially as between city states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories (Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). As of 2013 Germany is divided into 402 districts (Kreise) at a municipal level; these consist of 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts.[115]

Coat of arms of Lower Saxony.svg Lower Saxony Bremen Wappen.svg Bremen Coat of arms of Hamburg.svg Hamburg Coat of arms of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (great).svg Mecklenburg-
Vorpommern Wappen Sachsen-Anhalt.svg Saxony-
Anhalt Coat of arms of Saxony.svg Saxony Brandenburg Wappen.svg Brandenburg Insigne Berolini.svg Berlin Coat of arms of Thuringia.svg Thuringia Coat of arms of Hesse.svg Hesse Coat of arms of North Rhine-Westfalia.svg North Rhine-
Westphalia Coat of arms of Rhineland-Palatinate.svg Rhineland-Palatinate Arms of the Free State of Bavaria.svg Bavaria Coat of arms of Baden-Württemberg (lesser).svg Baden-
Württemberg Wappen des Saarlands.svg Saarland DEU Schleswig-Holstein COA.svg Schleswig-Holstein
State Capital Area (km2) Population [116] Nominal GDP billions EUR in 2015[117] Nominal GDP per capita EUR in 2015[117] Nominal GDP per capita USD in 2015[118]
Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,752 10,569,100 461 42,800 47,500
Bavaria Munich 70,549 12,519,600 550 43,100 47,900
Berlin Berlin 892 3,375,200 125 35,700 39,700
Brandenburg Potsdam 29,477 2,449,500 66 26,500 29,500
Bremen Bremen 404 654,800 32 47,600 52,900
Hamburg Hamburg 755 1,734,300 110 61,800 68,800
Hesse Wiesbaden 21,115 6,016,500 264 43,100 47,900
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Schwerin 23,174 1,600,300 40 25,000 27,700
Lower Saxony Hanover 47,618 7,779,000 259 32,900 36,600
North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,043 17,554,300 646 36,500 40,500
Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,847 3,990,300 132 32,800 36,400
Saarland Saarbrücken 2,569 994,300 35 35,400 39,300
Saxony Dresden 18,416 4,050,200 113 27,800 30,900
Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,445 2,259,400 57 25,200 27,800
Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,763 2,806,500 86 31,200 34,700
Thuringia Erfurt 16,172 2,170,500 57 26,400 29,300
Germany Berlin 357,376 82,175,684 3025 37,100 41,200
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Germany

Germany hosted the G8 summit in Heiligendamm, 6–8 June 2007
Germany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad[119] and maintains relations with more than 190 countries.[120] As of 2011, Germany is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 20%)[121] and the third largest contributor to the UN (providing 8%).[122] Germany is a member of NATO, the OECD, the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF. It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighbouring countries since 1990. Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus.[123][124]

The development policy of Germany is an independent area of foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[125] It was the world's third biggest aid donor in 2009 after the United States and France.[126][127]

In 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since 1945.[128] The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.[40] Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.[129]

Military
Main article: Bundeswehr
File:Eurofighter 9803.ogg
The Eurofighter Typhoon is part of the Luftwaffe fleet
Germany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organised into Heer (Army and special forces KSK), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. In absolute terms, German military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world.[130] In 2015, military spending was at €32.9 billion, about 1.2% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%.[131]

As of December 2015 the Bundeswehr employed roughly 178,000 service members, including 9,500 volunteers.[132] Reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad.[133] Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction.[134] About 19,000 female soldiers are on active duty. According to SIPRI, Germany was the fourth largest exporter of major arms in the world in 2014.[135]


A German Navy Brandenburg class frigate
In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. In state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr.[136]

The role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only. But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994 the term "defence" has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world. As of January 2015, the German military has about 2,370 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 850 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, 670 German soldiers in Kosovo, and 120 troops with UNIFIL in Lebanon.[137]

Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, and conscripts served six-month tours of duty; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (civilian service), or a six-year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross. In 2011 conscription was officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.[138][139]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Germany

Germany maintains a large automotive industry, and is the world's third largest exporter of goods.[140]
Germany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption,[141] and a high level of innovation.[142] It is the world's third largest exporter of goods,[140] and has the largest national economy in Europe which is also the world's fourth largest by nominal GDP[143] and the fifth one by PPP.[144]

The service sector contributes approximately 71% of the total GDP (including information technology), industry 28%, and agriculture 1%.[93] The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 4.7% in January 2015, which is the lowest rate of all 28 EU member states.[145] With 7.1% Germany also has the lowest youth unemployment rate of all EU member states.[145] According to the OECD Germany has one of the highest labour productivity levels in the world.[146]


Frankfurt is a leading business centre in Europe and seat of the ECB.
Germany is part of the European single market which represents more than 508 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Germany introduced the common European currency, the Euro in 2002.[147][148] It is a member of the Eurozone which represents around 338 million citizens. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt, the financial centre of continental Europe.

Being home to the modern car, the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world,[149] and is the fourth largest by production.[150] The top 10 exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.[151]

Companies
Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2014, the Fortune Global 500, 28 are headquartered in Germany. 30 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index. Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, SAP, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, Deutsche Bahn, Deutsche Bank and Bosch.[152]

Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the Mittelstand model. Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions.[153] Berlin developed a thriving, cosmopolitan hub for startup companies and became a leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.[154]

The list includes the largest German companies by revenue in 2014:[155]


Germany is part of a monetary union, the eurozone (dark blue), and of the EU single market.
Rank Name Headquarters Revenue
(bil. €) Profit
(bil. €) Employees
(World)
1. Volkswagen Wolfsburg 269 15 593,000
2. Daimler Stuttgart 172 9 280,000
3. E.ON Essen 151 −4 59,000
4. Allianz Munich 137 8 147,000
5. BMW Munich 107 8 116,000
6. Siemens Berlin, Munich 74 6 360,000
7. BASF Ludwigshafen 99 7 113,000
8. Metro Düsseldorf 59 1 228,000
9. Deutsche Telekom Bonn 83 4 228,000
10. Munich Re Munich 82 4 43,000
Transport
Main articles: Transport in Germany and Rail transport in Germany

The ICE 3 in Cologne railway station
With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub for the continent.[156] Like its neighbours in Western Europe, Germany's road network is among the densest in the world.[157] The motorway (Autobahn) network ranks as the third-largest worldwide in length and is known for its lack of a general speed limit.[158]

Germany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 km/h (190 mph).[159] The German railways are subsidised by the government, receiving €17.0 billion in 2014.[160]

The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, both hubs of Lufthansa, while Air Berlin has hubs at Berlin Tegel and Düsseldorf. Other major airports include Berlin Schönefeld, Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn and Leipzig/Halle.[161] The Port of Hamburg is one of the top twenty largest container ports in the world.[162]

Energy and infrastructure
Main articles: Energy in Germany, Telecommunications in Germany, and Water supply and sanitation in Germany
In 2008, Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy,[163] and 60% of its primary energy was imported.[164] In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%).[165] The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021.[166] It also enforces energy conservation, green technologies, emission reduction activities,[167] and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40% renewable sources by 2020. Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, water management, and the renewable energy commercialisation.[168] The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world—at around 65%.[169] Nevertheless, the country's total greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU in 2010.[170] The German energy transition (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.[171]

Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Germany

Albert Einstein, physicist. The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 107 German laureates.
Germany is a global leader in science and technology as it achievements in the fields of science and technology have been significant. Research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy.[172] The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 106 German laureates.[173] It produces the second highest number of graduates in science and engineering (31%) after South Korea.[174] In the beginning of the 20th century, German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation, especially in the sciences (physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine).[175][176]

Notable German physicists before the 20th century include Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Albert Einstein introduced the relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with Max Planck, he was instrumental in the introduction of quantum mechanics, in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions.[177] Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.[178] Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission, while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology. Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass, Hermann Weyl and Felix Klein.


European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, including Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer.[179] Such German inventors, engineers and industrialists as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin,[180] Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology. German institutions like the German Aerospace Center (DLR) are the largest contributor to ESA. Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket at Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.[181]

Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society. The Wendelstein 7-X in Greifswald hosts a facility in the research of fusion power for instance.[182] The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world.[183]

Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Germany

The Berchtesgaden alpine region. Bavaria is the overall most visited German state, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern by domestic tourists.
Germany is the seventh most visited country in the world,[184] with a total of 407 million overnights during 2012.[185] This number includes 68.83 million nights by foreign visitors. In 2012, over 30.4 million international tourists arrived in Germany. Berlin has become the third most visited city destination in Europe.[186] Additionally, more than 30% of Germans spend their holiday in their own country, with the biggest share going to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over EUR43.2 billion to German GDP. Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry contributes 4.5% of German GDP and supports 2 million jobs (4.8% of total employment).[187]

Germany is well known for its diverse tourist routes, such as the Romantic Road, the Wine Route, the Castle Road, and the Avenue Road. The German Timber-Frame Road (Deutsche Fachwerkstraße) connects towns with examples of these structures.[188][189] There are 41 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Germany,[190] including the old town cores of Regensburg, Bamberg, Lübeck, Quedlinburg, Weimar, Stralsund and Wismar. Germany's most-visited landmarks include e.g. Neuschwanstein Castle, Cologne Cathedral, Berlin Bundestag, Hofbräuhaus Munich, Heidelberg Castle, Dresden Zwinger, Fernsehturm Berlin and Aachen Cathedral. The Europa-Park near Freiburg is Europe's second most popular theme park resort.[191]

^^ shortest post ever 

I read all   (you can believe it or not, whatever you like to do)

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(01-30-2017, 11:32 AM)CantREKTMe Wrote:

(01-30-2017, 10:19 AM)Supergirl Wrote:

(01-30-2017, 09:00 AM)CantREKTMe Wrote:

(01-30-2017, 05:29 AM)Robin Wrote: WHAT THE HELL IS THIS!?!?!?!?

It is only @plsdonteatme's 10 minutes per week, which he have every week 
So, nothing special 

?

What you do not understand with this ?

[✨101✨]

plsdontspamme

[Faded]

(01-30-2017, 06:47 PM)✨101✨ Wrote: plsdontspamme

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[C411XM3XN00B]

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